Beauty therapy

Alexandrine – absorbed by melanin, Is (near Infrared) Is most effective when used on pale skin and Isn't safe to use on darker skin. It is Mann visible light wave length. It has a pulsed dried array of 810 NM for pale to medium skin types. Alexandrine has an observed color change from green to red.Alexandrine results from small scale replacement of a aluminum by chromium Ions In the crystal structure, which causes Intense absorption of the light over a narrow range of wave lengths in the yellow region of the spectrum' (Wisped) [http://en. M. Wisped. Org/wick/Chrysler/alexandrine] Alexandrine is a trochaic gem, which exhibits green, red, and orangey-yellow colors. Ruby- it Is deeper and Is 694. NM In visible wavelength and absorbed by melanin, and isn't used for hair removal any longer as It Is only safe to use on clients with very pale skin. Ruby laser is a solid laser.Its synthetic medium is ruby crystal. Ruby lasers use short pulses of red light. Diode – is a semicond uctor laser that is electronically pumped. They have the largest wave length selection, emits Mann near Infrared wavelength OCW and Is absorbed by melanin. Laser diodes are continuously emitting diodes from infrared to red, green or blue. Pulsed laser diodes or Plus have wavelengths of Mann and annum. Mann are single emitters. annum are eye safe. A diode is a semi conductive metal which allows energy to travel In one direction. An : Wag ? a crystal, and the most common form of laser.They typically emit a light wave length of annum in the infrared. They can operate in continuous or pulsed mode. These lasers can be used to treat numerous medical conditions such as ophthalmology, cataracts surgery, acute angle-closure glaucoma, benign or malignant lesions, skin cancers, as well as hair removal or vascular defects. Wag lasers have been used in manufacturing such as engraving and etching. PL – or intense pulsed light, shoots 2 or 3 pulses at the same target with a specific delay b etween the pulses. The spot size or width of the laser beam affects treatment.Theoretically, the width of the Ideal beam Is about 4 times as wide as the target Is deep' (Wisped). PL use effluence or energy which is measured in joules. Epidermal cooling with the PL means that higher fluencies can be used and treatment is less painful. Light Heat Energy (broadband spectrum systems) – light is converted into heat which targets various chromospheres In the skin, such as hemoglobin, melanin, and water. ‘Definition – Intense pulsed light describes the use of Intense pulses of non-coherent light distributed over a range of wave lengths from Mann to annum for removal of hair and other purposed.A related, but distinct technique is hair removal; the primary deference Is that laser treatments uses generated coherent ND monochromatic light' (Wisped). Question 2 – Investigate the various methods of skin cooling in relation to laser and I OFF Cooling gels are water base d and are applied to the skin pre-treatment and where necessary after treatment. The gel works by evaporation. Ice packs may be applied to the area pre and post treatment, but not directly to the skin as ice burns can occur, Wrap the ice pack in a thin disposable covering like bed roll.Cryogenic sprays or cold air is generated and directed to the area of treatment. Both are pre and post treatment. Cryogenic cooling is built into some systems. Simultaneous contact cooling is available on systems that operate through a scanner. It facilitates pre and post treatment cooling, and simultaneous cooling with lasing. This method speeds up treatment time by a series of laser pulses emitting in quick succession in a controlled area. Question 3 – describe the recommended time intervals between treatments for each are and give reasons for this.How do you evaluate the effectiveness of the treatment. Investigate reasons for poor hair removal results. Describe the recommended time intervals between treatments for skin rejuvenation and give reasons for this. It is necessary that subsequent treatments are given at regular intervals. The hair needs to be at the engage stage of growth for optimum results to be achieved. Time intervals are normally as follows: Area Eyebrows Upper lip Chin Armpit Legs Arms Bikini Retirement in weeks 5-7 3-5 6-8 6-12 8-10 Engage is the active growth state of the hair cycle.The follicle has reformed, the hair bulb is developing surrounding the dermal papilla and new hair forms growing from the matrix in the bulb. ‘Because of the cyclical nature of hair growth the follicles are always at different stages of their own growth cycle. When hair is removed, therefore, the hair will not grow back at the same time. For this reason, waxing or threading can appear to reduce the quantity of hair growth. ‘ (the Foundations Beauty Therapy 2 by Lorraine Mormon). Evaluating the effectiveness of the treatment can be accessed through photographs.I t is good practice to take photographs before and after each treatment. Treatment records keeping notes on progress and observations. Client feedback is essential for evaluating the effectiveness of the treatment. Clients can provide information such as how often they are shaving, if the hair is feeling finer, hinging out or if the hair is no longer growing back. Some of the reasons for poor hair removal results could be that the client has in increased amount of melanin in the skin causing lower energy effluence or Joule setting.The hair growth cycle may not be at the engage stage meaning that the hair is not active. It could be at the telling or cottage stage. The client may have topical hair removal between treatments. Adapted for each individual client. Clients may have tattoos. We do not work over tattoos as the pigment of ink may heat up and cause a burn or reduce in color or quality. We can use a white pencil or void the area. Clients skin types and hair color effect how each treatment is adapted, as the lighter the skin the lower the melanin content and the darker the hair is the higher the melanin content.Therefore, the best results are on a light skin with a dark hair. We can increase or decrease the pulse effluence and Joules to suit the clients skin type and hair color. Question 5 – Give a personal reflection on how you have felt from the start of using laser/lap to how you feel on going out into the industry. You can include how you feel you have developed and how it will affect you in the future. When I first started working with lasers all of the information was quite scary, it wasn't until I started to break down every piece of information that I began to understand how and why PL and lasers work.I have been working out in the industry with PL and used various pieces of PL machinery with companies such as Crystal Medical, Linton, Pulsar and Skin First. I have found some equipment to be more effective than others. The most effective machi ne I have found to be in the Linton Illuminate Advanced which is currently used by the NASH. Using a piece of equipment that is being used by the NASH instill confidence in me, and also in my clients because if the NASH are using such a piece of equipment, in my mind it would be deemed to be medically compliant, tested, reliable and give effective results.In the future I would like to see a more efficient method of hair removal or perhaps a machine that can cover a large area in each treatment. I would also like to see the regulations on who can use PL or laser machines tightened as currently anyone can have independent training via the companies who supply the machines over a couple of days. I believe this is not enough knowledge or experience to be let loose on members of the public. Beauty Therapy As each and every one of us is different, so too is our skin. The various combinations are normal, dry, oily, combination, and sensitive and aged skin. In normal skin, the oil glands produce moderate sebum, whereas dry skin is caused by under or inactive glands that do not produce enough sebum to keep the skin naturally lubricated. Oily skin is due to too much sebum, resulting in skin that has a greasy texture and appears shiny. Combination skin is the most common as most people have dry parts & oily parts; known as the T-Zone.The sensitive skin is felt to be more of a skin condition rather than a skin type as it refers to the delicacy of the skin rather than its type as it is a reaction to certain cosmetics and other matierals. (Facial Skin Types, 2003-2008) 2. When treating skin it is very important to analyse what the skin type is beforehand. In determining the best course of action to take, clinical research has shown that genetics, hair color, eye color, ethnicity and true skin color all play into the skin’s response to injury, including some treatments such as dermabrasion and microdermabrasion, laser resurfacing and chemical peels.The aesthetician is able to determine which clients may have a greater or lesser risk of complications, including scars or pigmentation problems from treatments by typing their skin. (Hill, 2007) 3. Along with skin types, there are a few divisions and subdivisions that can affect the skin; acne, psoriasis, eczema, and rosacea. All of which can be partially treated but care has to be taken when using cosmetics and facial creams. 4. DSHAPES (D = Vitamin D), (S= Secretion), (P= Protection), (S= Storage), (E= Excretion), (H= Heat) 5. Skin conditions like, acne and rosacea are very different from each other. Acne is causedby an inflammation of the skin resulting in eruptions on the surface, i. e. whiteheads, blackheads, pimples, even cysts. The acne is classified in three categories; comedonal, inflammatory and nodulocystic. Acne vulgaris has three factors in common, too much facial oil, hormones and bacteria. Poor hygiene is not the cause of acne. (Luxuries, 2003-2008) The skin condition, rosacea is caused by varying degrees of redness due to enlargement and dilation of blood vessels beneath the skins surface. (Rosacea Care – Symptoms and Treatment, 2003-2008). Unlike acne vulgaris, the skin does not erupt when suffering from rosacea.6. The shedding of the outer layer of skin, known as desquamation has its benefits, like exfloiation it rids the skin of flaky, old skin, making way for fresh new cells to make new skin. Certain treatments can accelerate this process, a chemical peel is one of them. 7. Facial steaming is an excellent method of caring for your skin. As it only involves placing your face into the steam from water, there is the added bonus of it being natural. Opening and cleansing the pores, skin will feel softer and cleaner with less visible pores. 8. Collagen and elastin are both fi bres found in our dermis, the deeper layer of skin.They are both proteins but collagen and elastin differ significantly in their content of basic amino acids. (Fluorescence microscopic distinction between elastin and collagen , 2004) 9. Using a magnifying lamp is useful as it enables a higher level of sight than the naked eye and clearly shows any imperfection, making it a simple task when analysing skin. (D'Angelo, 2002) 10. The Wood lamp is similar to a magnifying lamp, only with a Wood lamp you are able to see even deeper into the skin. 11. Erythema is a name applied to redness of the skin produced by congestion of thecapillaries. Oedma is the pressure of abnormally large amounts of fluid in the intercellular tissue spaces of the body. Papule is a small, superficial elevation of the skin. A Macule is a spot. A Pustule is an elevation of the cuticle containing pus. A Comedone is a plug of sebum. A Milia is a small subepidermal cyst which is usually multiple, referred to as milium. Eczema is a thickening and scaling of the skin. (Education, 1997-2007). 12. Moisturising face masks will improve the skins moisture levels. The mask works like a moisturiser but is more intense and quick.A mud or clay face mask is good for oily skins as it absorbs excess impurities and grease. A gel face mask is particularly good if you have irritated skin or have suffered too much heat from the sun. (Facial Masks). 13. Using different ingredients in setting masks have differing qualities; Kaolin is used for acne prone and oily skin because of its absorbant properties. Fullers Earth is similar to Kaolin but also has deep cleansing properties. Rose Water is more suited to dry and sensitive skin because of its mild toning effects and Calamine is useful for ageing or sensitive skin because it has a cooling, soothing effect.(Oily and Acne Prone Skin, 2007) 14. If your face has never shown an oily shine and you've never suffered from pimples or acne, chances are you were born with norma l to dry skin. If that's the case, you'll want to keep it sufficiently moisturized and use skin-care products especially formulated for dry skin. If on the other hand your pores are visible, especially on your chin, nose and between your eyebrows, you're prone to breakouts and clogged pore, but your skin looks scaly and dry in places, you're dehydrated. (New Skin Oasis, 2005 & 2006) 15. Hyperhidrosis is excessive perspiring.Anhidrosis is an absence of sweat. Bromhidros is foul smelling perspiration (body odour). (Education, 1997-2007) 16. Two disorders of the sebaceous glands are milia (whiteheads) and comedone (blackheads). 17. An eccrine gland is a tubular gland that occurs in the skin on almost all parts of the skin. An apocrine gland is droplet of sweat. (Education, 1997-2007) 18. Client consultation is important because of all the different skin types and skin conditions. Analysing a clients skin before treatment of any type will ensure the correct products or treatments are us ed. 19.Acid mantle is the fine film with a slightly acidic pH level that protects the skin from the sun. (Gil Yosipovitch, 2003). 20. Skin Cancer, Breast Cancer, Lung Cancer. 21. Eczema – itchy and flaky. Dermatitis – itchy, blotchy and flaky. Psoriasis – thickening of skin, flaky, itchy, usually only affects the joints and isolated areas. Acne – eruptions underneath the skins surface. Rosacea – reddening of the skin, blotchiness. 22. The meaning of allergy is to be allergic to something. Your body or skin reacts letting you know that what you have come into contact with disagrees with you. 23.Albinism – a total lack of melanin in the skin. Melasma – dark brown, symmetric patches of pigment on the face. Vitiligo – smooth white patches on skin. Port wine stain – a flat, pink, red or purple birth mark. Strawberry hemangiomas – a slightly raised, red birthmark. (Dermatology , 2008) 24. No diagrams, impossible to do. D'Angelo, J. (2002). Miladys Standard Comprehensive Training for Estheticians. Retrieved March 16, 2008, from http://books. google. co. uk/books? id=jZACPaVxE4gC&pg=PA117&lpg=PA117&dq=why+is+a+magnifying+lamp+important+in+skin+care&source=web&ots=VQlWnsTbgL&sig=PIguYdUGsVIv0H34rBkcrMKFDr4&hl=enDermatology . (2008, January). Retrieved March 16, 2008, from University of Maryland Medical Center: http://www. umm. edu/dermatology-info/pigment. htm Education, C. f. (1997-2007). Retrieved March 16, 2008, from Online Medical Dictionary: http://cancerweb. ncl. ac. uk/cgi-bin/omd? erythema Facial Masks. (n. d. ). Retrieved March 16, 2008, from Skin Care Tips Online: http://www. skin-care-tips-online. com/Facial-Masks. html Facial Skin Types. (2003-2008). Retrieved March 16, 2008, from Herbal Luxuries: http://www. herballuxuries. com/skin_types. htm Fluorescence microscopic distinction between elastin and collagen .(2004, December 1). Retrieved March 16, 2008, from SpringerLink: http://www. sp ringerlink. com/content/kr21x1633687171q/ Gil Yosipovitch, M. a. (2003). The Importance of Skin pH. Retrieved March 16, 2008, from CWI Medical: http://www. cwimedical. com/incontinence-skin-ph. html Hill, P. (2007, May Wednesday). Professional Aesthetics Series: The Importance of Skin Typing Before Treatment. Retrieved March 16, 2008, from Pamela Hill Institute: http://pamelahillinstitute. com/95/professional-aesthetics-series-the-importance-of-skin-typing-before-treatment/ Luxuries, H. (2003-2008).Acne Causes and Treatments. Retrieved March 16, 2008, from Herbal Luxuries: http://www. herballuxuries. com/acne. htm New Skin Oasis. (2005 & 2006). Retrieved March 16, 2008, from New Skin Oasis: http://www. newskinoasis. com/skin_care_tips. asp? skin_care_tip=14 Oily and Acne Prone Skin. (2007). Retrieved March 16, 2008, from Preventacne. com: http://www. preeventacne. com/mall/Preeventacne/Oily%20and%20acne-prone%20skin. htm Rosacea Care – Symptoms and Treatment. (2003-2008). Ret rieved March 16, 2008, from Herbal Luxuries: http://www. herballuxuries. com/rosacea. htm

How Building Muscle Reduces Adipose Tissue and Improves Health

The human body is a complex organism that begins working at the moment of conception and does not stop working until the moment of death. As cells divide and a being begins to take shape, the human body sets in motion a network of organs and functions that will allow the growing individual to operate. Each of the functions that the human body undertakes requires energy, and this energy is manufactured via the substances that are ingested by the organism. Food and drink are to a human being what gasoline is to a car: the fuel by which everything runs.The term that best describes the fuel needed for humans to work is â€Å"calorie,† and calories are needed to perform every function the body undertakes—even sleeping. It would be terribly inconvenient to own a car that had a one-gallon gas tank: trying to get most places would require constant fill-ups, and long trips would be out of the question. The human body is no different: it has space to store calories for later use, so that long periods of time can pass between â€Å"fill-ups.† Unfortunately, the size of the human fuel â€Å"tank† is almost unlimited, and this is where excess fat comes into play. As the body ingests calories, these calories are turned into fuel, but what is left over is stored in the body, and â€Å"surplus calories [. . . ] are ALL converted to body fat and stored as adipose tissue† (Collins 27). This is not a healthy situation. â€Å"Americans are increasing in body fat as they become more sedentary. Obesity has reached epidemic proportions† (Cummings, Parham, and St. Rain 1145).The good news is that resistance training is one of the most effective ways for an individual to reduce his or her excess body fat: not only does the exercise itself burn calories, but resistance training increases the body’s amount of muscle mass in the body, and the more muscle tissue an individual has, the more calories he or she will burn (Phillips and D’ Orso passim). The relationship between muscle mass and the burning of calories has to do with the body’s metabolism: â€Å"the process by which substances come into the body and are used† (132).Depending on the type of activity an individual is involved with, the body’s metabolism will respond by going into the calorie stores and providing the requisite fuel. The more strenuous the activity, the more fuel that is required, and the more fuel that is required, the fewer the number of calories that end up remaining in the body’s fat â€Å"tank. † Remember, everything the body does requires the use of fuel, and that includes calories that are burned while an individual is sedentary.Each person has a Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) which is â€Å"the turnover of energy in a fasting and resting organism using energy solely to maintain vital cellular activity, respiration, and circulation† (â€Å"Basal Metabolic Rate†). An individual’s Bas al Metabolic Rate will determine, in part, the number of calories that are burned each day—no mater what that person does. Muscle is the most active tissue in the human body and is essential to life. It is estimated that one pound of muscle requires 50 to 100 calories per day to function.Increasing a person’s muscle mass by as little as three to five pounds can have a profound effect on daily caloric expenditure by raising Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR), or the number of calories needed by the body to carry out basic daily functions. (Serraino) With this information in mind, it is clear that increasing one’s muscle tissue will increase the number of calories one burns each day, and resistance training increases one’s muscle tissue. Resistance training is key to muscle building: â€Å"Muscle is spared at the expense of other tissues if there is a need for it† (Serraino).In other words, the body functions in terms of supply and demand: as the body receiv es a demand for fuel, it will create the energy needed; however, not all calories are the same. â€Å"Our food fuel comprises the protein, carbohydrate, fat and alcohol we eat. [. . . ] There is an ‘order of priority’ that dictates which fuels are burned first. Alcohol calories are burned first [. . . then] protein, then carbohydrates, then fat† (Collins 27). Consider the emaciated look of people who are calorie deficient: this is due to their body’s turning to its own organs and tissues for fuel.It is an awful image, but it does illustrate the way in which the body seeks fuel to continue operating. If the external sources of fuel are insufficient, the body will burn whatever is available, but aside from deficiency, because of the â€Å"order of priority,† even a fully fueled body seeks out protein calories before carbohydrate or fat calories. High-intensity resistance training offers the stimulus necessary to tell the body it requires muscle. The b ody maintains protective margins against stress, and exercise is a stressor.When a muscle is taken to failure (the point where continued contraction is impossible), an alarm is triggered, telling the body its protective margins are in danger and it must adapt to maintain itself. Hence, muscle will be spared at the expense of fat. (Serraino) Resistance training builds muscle, changes the body’s â€Å"order of priority† in terms of the type of calories burned, and increases an individual’s BMR—all of which result in fat loss and decreased production of adipose tissue.Many people undertake a resistance training program to lose weight due to dissatisfaction with their physical appearance; however, as things improve on the outside (i. e. one appears to be less fat), things are also improving on the inside. Thus the benefits of resistance training for fat loss are not limited to one’s physical appearance. Breast cancer is a serious concern for women, but the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance (AAHPERD) has some positive news.The Women’s Health Initiative, a federal study that was begun in 1993 and was ongoing in 2002, involved data that was collected from â€Å"66,568 American women age 50 and up. † The data show that study participants who worked out vigorously for three or more hours each week were 13 percent less likely to develop breast cancer than non-exercisers. Women who worked out the most and burned the most fat were 22 percent less likely to develop breast cancer, possibly because lower levels of body fat do not store as much cancer-promoting estrogen. (American Alliance for Health)Although this study does not define what â€Å"worked out vigorously† entailed, what is significant is the connection between reduced body fat and reduced breast-cancer risk. Given the direct link between increased muscle mass and decreased body fat, the potential link between resistance training, fat loss, and reduced breast-cancer risk should not be ignored. Type 2 Diabetes is also a serious health threat, and as it manifests itself over time, generally striking during one’s â€Å"elderly† years, a long-term resistance training program that reduces body fat can help prevent the onset of this disease.In their study, Ibanez, et al. found: Prolonged resistance training [. . . ] led to significant increases in muscle strength, decreases in abdominal fat, and improvements in insulin sensitivity. [. . . ] These observations suggest that two sessions per week of PRT are safe and could serve as a potential adjunct therapy in the management of type 2 diabetes in older men. This particular study specifically addresses â€Å"PRT† or prolonged resistance training when making the connection to health improvements with lower body fat.The human body is an organism designed to operate much like an automobile: it needs fuel to survive. Obviously, the human bo dy differs from a car in a variety of ways, but the two relevant differences are that the fuel-storage capacity of a person far exceeds that of an automobile; and even at rest, the human organism requires fuel to continue to operate. When a reasonable limit of fuel storage is exceeded in a person, the body turns this into adipose tissue. A body that contains excess fat is like a car with a clogged fuel line: it simply does not function well.Not only is excess adipose tissue a threat to one’s physical appearance, it is a threat to one’s overall health. â€Å"If three to five pounds of muscle are added to the body, BMR will increase by 250 to 500 calories per day—regardless of activity level†; therefore, there are numerous benefits to resistance training for fat loss and overall health (Serraino). Works Cited American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance. The Women’s Health Initiative. â€Å"Physical Activity May Reduce Brea st Cancer Risk. † The Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, & Dance. 73.1 (2002): 8. Expanded Academic ASAP. InfoTrac. Sacramento City Coll. Lib. , Sacramento, CA. 5 Dec. 2006. â€Å"Basal Metabolic Rate. † Encyclopedia Britannica. 15th ed. 2003. Collins, Anne. â€Å"How the Body Uses Food Energy. † Women’s Health. Nov. 2004. 27. Cummings, Sue, Ellen S. Parham, and Gladys W. St. Rain. â€Å"Position of the American Dietetic Association: Weight Management, (ADA Reports). † Journal of the American Dietetic Assocication. 102. 8 (2002): 1145-1155. Expanded Academic ASAP. InfoTrac. Sacramento City Coll. Lib. , Sacramento, CA. 4 Dec. 2006. Ibanez, Javier, et al.â€Å"Twice-Weekly Progressive Resistance Training Decreases Abdominal Fat and Improves Insulin Sensitivity in Older Men with Type 2 Diabetes. † Diabetes Care. 28. 3 (2005): 662. Expanded Academic ASAP. InfoTrac. Sacramento City Coll. Lib. , Sacramento, CA. 5 Dec. 2006. Phillips, Bill, and Michael D’Orso. Body for Life: 12 Weeks to Mental and Physical Strength. New York: Harper-Collins, 1999. Serraino, Robert J. â€Å"Taking It All Off: High-Intensity Resistance Training Promotes Fat Loss Without Muscle Depletion. † American Fitness. Mar. -Apr. 1996. FindArticles. 4 Dec. 2006.

ZEBRA COMPANY Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

ZEBRA COMPANY - Essay Example which they need to arrange ticketing, network members of the company are now regarding purchasing wristband printers in order to make their own wristbands. The underlying objectives behind such a decision are to save costs on ticketing, provide a source of employment and hence, income for network members, offer a community or for-profit service for individual network members involved in organising additional events. In addition to that, the organization also plans to extend their operations to other communities who are engaged in similar activities. With such an underlying objective in their mind, the organization has approached us with an enquiry to purchase wristband printers in order to make their own wristbands and henceforth, bring down the costs of ticketing. Thus, this internal document will serve as a proposal highlighting the outlines of CNL as well as prospects of our company with regards to doing business with CNL. CNL is a small and local event management organization. They are yet to achieve a solid establishment and recognition. Considering that they are a newbie in this particular field, there are various problems associated with the organization. First and foremost, for a company who is not substantially established, pooling financial resources externally becomes a bit of a problem. This puts a limitation to the extent to which they can conduct their operations flexibly. Staff recruitment is another problem that they frequently face. More often than not, personnel work on a temporary basis in such companies and leave without a notice in search of better opportunities. This disrupts the company’s flow of operations and also, deteriorates the quality of service that they provide. The key to organize a successful event is to allocate the right resources with the appropriate skills. Companies like, CNL, do not possess a precise knowhow of efficient resource allocation. This often leads the company to incur much more costs than that is anticipated.

Animal Make Us More Human Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Animal Make Us More Human - Essay Example Naturally children, when left to their own devices, will take the first step and form activities and other stories in the world which is around them. With children who have passed their toddler age, most imaginative games and plays begin because of parental guidance or supervision. Unstructured free play takes place in many varying environments, but, the outdoors may give more chances for free play because of movable items, such as dirt, sticks, rocks, leaves, which provide them with the opportunity of creation and exploration. Some parents do not find it easy to give unstructured play time for the kids. Giving kids time without continuous supervision and guidance, in particular outside play, is difficult. It feels difficult to find reasonable concern, over-attention and the yearning to get kids familiar with freedom and learned from their own experiences and mistakes. Emotional intelligence and socialization is increased through physical movement and shared interactions. Children also work together to come up with what game they have to play and then agree the rules and how to deal with scenarios that always involve the varying perspectives of all. These works they do together build in the social qualities that everyone want for their kids. Children are building with self-awareness, compassion, empathy, flexibility and self-regulation. This emotional development is endorsed with the physical health as kids playing outside move a lot. In children and adults alike the level of physical activity has been well recognized to reduce the anxiety, stress and despair and to enhance the overall mood. This research is thin in young adults and youngest kids get the most advantage as well. Free play in young children and toddlers most often involves the burst of gross motor activity over a time period with numerous ones over a time period. Most of the children are laughing

Enron paper Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Enron - Research Paper Example Enron was a among leading promoters in restructuring of energy markets which led to the emergent of its name, but the name was later changed to energy country as a result of its invention in new global market. Enron was a pioneer company in the legend of elite of workers in financial world. The company acquired miscellaneous investments to its portfolio and had the capability of obtaining returns of 200% of its investments to shareholders. By 2000, Enron had become a massive company in the industry. They opened branches in South America, India Asia and a host of other European States and countries. They extended their functions by starting occupation in additional projects that they had started, and it is when they started the online manufacturing of energy and telecommunication facilities. They further introduced services such as, risk management, consulting services, internet broadband services, and the launch of outstanding products that protected against bad weather (Hutton 5). H owever, in October 16, 2001, the company was involved in some fraudulent activities and this led it to bankruptcy. On December 2, 2001, in Southern District of New York, Enron Company went ahead and filed for bankruptcy after it recorded a loss of an approximated $638 million in its third quarter earnings, and chose Weil Gotshal and Manges as their bankruptcy counsel. This bankruptcy was as a result of, top executives involved in huge scandals such as, money laundering, corruption and a series of other conspiracies. To add on top of that, they lost their goodwill, investments and confidence by admitting fraud in income of about four years, which was about $586. They also admitted to have hidden $3 billion in debt to create limited partnerships. Afterwards, they faced a massive deterioration in the stock market with, is $90 per share falling to less than $1 per share in 2000. (Bhatnagar et al. 8) Employees of Enron Corporation became affected in disastrous ways, stating form unemploy ment to their retirement savings getting lost in the fraud. Banks also became victims of circumstances by losing millions of dollars of investments that the company had acquired as loan, due to fake earning reports. The firm was sidelined by a number of its clients and workers resulting to them quitting out of business. The report of these financial frauds were preplanned, and systematically arranged to undertake fraudulent activities. The counterfeiting of strategies, embezzling of profits and hiding increased debt diminished the company’s stock value through the fraudulent activities, they were able to gain access in borrowing extra wealth and with this, and they were boosted. The statistics revealed that top executives gave incorrect audit reports about the company’s economic conditions. In February 2002, the company was inquired by Senate Commerce Committee and they later came out of bankruptcy in November 2004 (Bhatnagar et al, 10). Accounting Problems Enron start ed experiencing accounting problems in late 2001 that, compounded of some of its several businesses not doing well as required. In October 2001, Enron announced a series of asset losses which included an

Questions and Answers Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Questions and Answers - Case Study Example The leaders were Jeffrey Skilling, former Enron President and CEO, Kenneth Lay, CEO and Andrew Fastow, Ex-Chief Financial Officer. 2. How did leadership influence the organizational culture at Enron? Jeffrey Skilling and Andrew Fastow were instrumental in changing the organizational culture of Enron. They gave the perception that Enron was very innovative and very profitable. Enron has a dysfunctional corporate culture which was obsessed with short-term earnings so that the bonuses will be maximized. The employees began looking at high volume deals even if it meant disregarding the quality of the cash flows and profits. The employees’ actions were reflective of their leaders’ values and beliefs. Extravagant spending was common among its executives. The excessive stock options and corporate compensation gave Enron’s executives too many incentives to manipulate the financial accounts and the stock price of the company. Corporate values and principles seemed to disa ppear at Enron at the time of their leadership. 3. Did the performance evaluation system at Enron support or undermine the company’s business goals and leadership beliefs? Yes, the performance evaluation system at the time of Skilling supported the company’s business goals and leadership beliefs.

Argentine Americans Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Argentine Americans - Essay Example According to the census statistics conducted in the year 1991, the population of Argentina was approximately 32 million which equals to 12 percent of the total population of South America. This figure makes Argentina the third most populated country of the Continent, the first two being Columbia and Brazil. Out of the total population of Argentina, 90 percent populations are Roman Catholics. The remaining percentage comprises of Protestants Jews and they live in Buenos Aires. Argentina is both an ethnic and diverse country. Most of the population who stay in that country comprise of immigrants from Italy and Spain (Rodriguez). "In the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries, other ethnic groups, including Germans, Poles, Welsh, Irish, Lebanese, Hungarians, Czechs, Danish, French, Jews, Japanese, Koreans, and Swiss also chose Argentina for settlement (Rodriguez)." The country Argentina is divided into four geographical sections. The Andes Mountain is considered as the northwestern border of the country. To the east of the Andes Mountains, lies a high plateau region which is an area that is large and grassy. "This grassy area is drained by the Ro Paraguay and Ro Paran, which themselves drain into the bay like Ro de la Plata (River of Silver), the widest river on earth (Rodriguez)." During the sixteenth century, approximately 3 lakh Ameri... There are almost ten distinct groups who have got different lifestyles. For example, the fertile river valleys were farmed by a tribal group called Guaran. Another tribal group named Onas who lived in the southern part of the country used to hunt animals like ostriches and seals. To the north of the country lived the Araucanians and they were away from the wild animals that were in the area. "Other tribes populating the area included the Incas in the northwest, the Charras in the east, and the Quechuas, Tehuelches, and Huarpes in the central and western regions. The Pampas inhabited the plains of the same name (Rodriguez)." Immigration Waves: If the history of Argentina is observed carefully, it can be noticed that the country can be characterized as a country familiar for its immigration. But many environmental forces like economic factors, political imbalances and social unsteadiness have altered Argentina into not only a country of immigration but also as a country of travel and emigration (Jachimowicz). Before the period of 1970s, the government of United States classified the immigrants in Argentina into a category named "Other Hispanics". However, the immigrants were considered as a relatively new group. Ever since the late 1990s a number of factors such as dismal employment prospects, strong demand for foreign labor and finally favorable policies for getting visas have led a number of Argentineans to migrate to the United States of America. "An estimated 185,000 Argentines emigrated between 1960 and 1970, and the number climbed to an estimated 200,000 in the decade that followed. Primary destination for these immi grants was the United States (Jachimowicz)." Over 60 percent of these Argentine immigrants are believed to have

Biography of Dr. Avraham Biran Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Biography of Dr. Avraham Biran - Research Paper Example To embellish his achievement, he also made it as the head of several archeology bodies both in Israel and the United States. He also had great interest in biblical archeology. This trait he always said he obtained from his mentor who also shared similar perceptions in biblical archeology. His vast knowledge of and interest in archeology made his speaking abilities more elegant. By then lectures had no importance as students and the general public were not regular attendants. Lectures and talks involving Avraham Biran used to be full to capacity as thousands of people flocked to grasp part of his knowledge. According to General Books LLC,2 it was only a person sharing the same features as Avraham Birian who was capable of achieving what he did with so many factors against his success. He was among the first archeology to help nurture a generation of well informed and knowledgeable archeologists. What made Biran an exceptional archeology is the fact that he gave a lot back to his count ry. This saw him achieve major awards in his home country. He unraveled the archeology potential of Israel. He also has in his name numerous articles and publications on archeology. Avraham Biran was born on 1909 in Petah Tivkah, part of the Ottoman Empire. Before changing his surname to Biran, he had the surname Bergman. He and his family moved to Rosh Pina which was a land of his ancestors. This made him adapt to the name Mayflower Israeli. He had his roots in Palestine where his great grandfather had first settled. In his youth his family moved to Egypt. His father managed to obtain a small farm in which he managed and produced some products for their support. His great grandfather had granted them the Palestinian roots after settling there and forming a political Zionism in 1897.3 However, he was Romania-born. A few years later, his father died. After which his family moved back to Palestine and spent his life in times with his grandparents until he reached the age of 13. Mr. Bi ran studied at the Hebrew Reali School of Haifa. It is from the school that he got the inspiration he needed in life. In his own words, he said that the impression the school left in him was lifelong. It was the time he spent at Reali School of Haifa that made him gain interest in archeology. The influence his principal had in him was very great. The principal Mr. Arthur Biram taught him the Bible and ancient history. At this time he attended many hikes in which he never left his Bible behind. They visited ancient Samaria, Jerusalem, Hebron and the Western Wall. With his Bible and exposure to ancient sites, his interest in archeology grew even greater.4 At times he used the Bible to relate to the archeological sites he visited. It was this great interest and passion that made Professor Albright, one of the greatest archeologists, call him to study with him. He then moved to Israel and continued his studies at the David Yellin Teacher’s College in Jerusalem. He then went back to teach in Haifa where his education started. In 1930 he moves to the United States to continue his studies. He enrolled at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia. A year later, he enrolled as a student in Near Eastern studies under Professor Albright at John Hopkins University in Baltimore. It was from the two institutions that he received his MA in 1934 and a PhD in 1935 respectively. He retired from his archeology career at the age of 93 when he moved back to

Bretton Woods Institutions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Bretton Woods Institutions - Essay Example Many people regard these post-colonial institutions to help the developing countries. According to Anghie (2002), these institutions define the ‘unique’ relationship, which exists between international organizations and the Third World. These institutions have been developed, in order for technological advancement of different countries from the developing world, and to refine, reinforce, reproduce and manage the statehood of countries from the Third World (Tan, pp. 31, 2011). Although, established with the aim of reconstructing Europe, the World Bank has taken part in many development projects that have occurred in the Third World. World Bank has also provided different loans to these countries, in order for them to establish themselves properly (Chebucto, n.p, n.d). Although these organizations have been created under the UN charter; in practice, they are largely autonomous (Willis, pp. 36, 2005). These institutions, developed some 60 years ago were developed to put an end to the depression, caused by economic problems, as well as the war, and were a beacon of light for many, especially for the development countries. For this purpose, the paper seeks to examine the ways that the institutions have helped the poor countries (Daly, Farley, pp. 318, 2004). However, since there is large criticism surrounding these Bretton Woods Institutions, it is also imperative to discuss the extent that these organizations have been pro-poor over the years. Nonetheless, it is important to discuss the roles of these two sister organizations, before judging their actions. Although, they had been developed for different purposes, their roles have changed dramatically over the ensuing years. The World Bank seeks to provide development assistance. On the other hand, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) promotes monetary cooperation on an international level through surveying the countries, and lends to those countries, which have a negative position in Balance of Payme nts (BOP). However, their roles often overlap with each other, since they both seek to provide financial assistance, through one way or the other. For example, considering the actions of World Bank and IMF after the economic crisis in Latin America, one would notice that both these organizations help each other in their respective goals (Weiss, Daws, pp. 1, 2006). One can recognize that they have been active in working for the development for the poor through the ways that they have rapidly changed their roles. Aside from maintaining a fixed exchange rate system, which helped poor countries develop economically, the IMF also gave loans to countries, which had balance of payments problems. Most of these problems are experienced by countries, belonging to the Third World, and the repercussions of negative balance of payments are quite magnificent. Hence, in order to correct this situation, short-term loans were provided, during the 1950s. The World Bank sought to develop different cou ntries, by encouraging private investment to flow into the Third World, so that more development could occur in these countries (Weiss, Dawas, pp.5, 2006). Throughout the years, they kept adding more problems to their agenda, so that these problems could be solved. In 1988, the Multilateral Investment

European wars of religion Essay Example for Free

European wars of religion Essay The 14th century was an era of great crisis for Europe; disorder in the Catholic Church rattled people’s faith in authorities and religion. In this dark period, Europeans desired a new start, or in other words a cultural rebirth. This cultural rebirth was named \ The Renaissance\ which gives meaning in French â€Å"rebirth† The people who gave this name also thought there was a clear distinction between Dark Ages and their century. They coined the terms â€Å"modern† and â€Å"ancient† and saw Middle Ages as a long break from enlightenment. In addition to that, according to the City University of New York at Brooklyn, â€Å"immense hunger for learning about classical antiquity was reborn† after the Middle Ages.* During the Middle Ages, there was a mentality that individuals should devote their lives to the church above everything. In that time education was exclusively based on religion. Many scholars were fixated on the idea that faith was more important than mind and reasoning. This situation changed when Renaissance thinkers split from medieval tradition and emphasized individual experience and materialistic approach to life instead of religious duties. This philosophy emerged due to Italians exploration and revision of the ancient Roman and Greek texts and scriptures partly because they were surrounded by the remnants of Roman Empire and they have noticed the disastrous place Western culture has landed on. They greatly expanded the ancient works and innovated new ideas. Intellectual people such as writers, sculptors, architects were valued in the society, unlike Middle Age times. There was now a new worldview called humanism which valued human beings and brought attention to the human ma gnificence in both physical and mental areas. Humanism also brought increased enthusiasm in exploring things and quest of knowledge. Renaissance intellectuals at the time were in awe of these fresh ideas. Almost every institution saw great changes and secular arrangements. Education saw improvements. Pupils were now separated by their age and skills. Art now was interested in human proportions and realistic aspects. There was still some religious paintings but Renaissance artist mostly drew from and inspired by real life. With printing press’s invention by Johannes Gutenberg allowed for far-reaching access to important secular books and literature and most importantly Bible. It became normal for common people to read and think in their own language. This meant vernacular-meaning their mother tongue- literature aided with the spread of humanistic ideas beyond intellectuals of the time. Writers like Petrarch and Dante wrote in Italian and believed everyone should be able to read in their languages. Scientists also began to value observation over religious teachings and viewed everything with skepticism. They examined their theories by evidence. Even sometimes some scientists like Galileo Galilei gathered enough courage to speak out against the Church. But Renaissance didn’t exclusively mean separation from religion altogether, rather abandoning old Middle Age values and bringing new insights to the human perception of life, art, and everything. Rhetoric was born as a consequence of this. Renaissance was possible thanks to the recovery of Roman and Greek literature by scholars of that time. Latin was also used that time but it was more academic and monkish. Upon revisiting Latin texts in a more secular view people began to shift their consciousness and appreciate ancient culture. They thought they were alike in a worldly sense. They believed they had the same delicacy over important matters and they both believed in the humanities power to tackle everything. Then they started to study Greek which inspired Romans. The Greek manuscripts were present in Italy because during the fall of Constantinople many Christian scholars fled to Rome. They brought tales of Homer and many other important books. This spur philosophical inquiries. These maniscruptures made people start thinking about virtues of the human soul. They were also interested in the usage of language its effects itself. Historian Bruni once said â€Å"knowledge alone is not enough, we must add the power of exp ression to make effectual use of what we know† implying rhetoric. Ancient writings had the other function too. They offered practical teachings about life. They consisted of not theological but moral grounds with given answers secular in nature. This was at its most basic, a belief in the identity of the human spirit under its all epiphanies. They found that in classical texts there existed an ideal of human life, both moral and intellectual, by which they can profit now. During the Renaissance period, people’s views on mankind changed drastically. Before this era scholars were generally speaking with a single voice praising a similar human type which was frail, poor, withdrawn from life, quiet and needy. With Renaissance, the focus on God and religion as the main character shifted to human himself. During this era, art showed people as god-like creatures who were in their perfect shape. This made people feel graceful and beautiful in a sense that made them proud of themselves. For example, Leonardo Da Vinci’s painting Mona Lisa was done to portray the human beauty and inner mystery in realistic ways. There was also inclination for wealth accumulation and striving for better living conditions. Involvement with everyday life and taking care of themselves was becoming the norm. Public duties for common men were often overlooked and praising of extraordinary men with dreamable qualities was taking place. The goal was the manifestation of hu mans unique powers and showing their ability to steer their circumstances using willpower. Their destiny was not up to some higher being rather people with their own being paving their way to achieving the maximum of everything they get their hands on. Individuality was welcomed and people realized they were different on the inside than everyone else and made sense of themselves in the universe and complicated social structures. This obsession with humans can be even seen in almost every art branch of the time. Instead of focusing on traditional illustrations of religious symbols, artists like Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo painted the human frame in every depth possible. With the help of anatomy, they tried to illustrate perfect detail, scale, and dimension. Also to improve upon their realistic values they relied heavily on depth and texture.* Space in their paintings was used to indicate a moving and vivid world with real human beings living ground. They used earthly, meaning tangible, objects to portray a realistic background. While earlier paintings had been 2d objects against white backgrounds and combined many scenes in one painting, Renaissance paintings focused on one particular scene or moment in time in a 3d realistic view like some scenery was localized and frozen in particular time and place. This enabled viewer to enter that artwork. Painters of the Renaissance researched perspective and cre ating the illusion of a three-dimensional area. Art was objectified so every human looking at it can perceive some unchangeable truths about it. It was solidified for the sake of realistic proportions. Artworks represented human as not symbolic or imitation of one another but with their distinct personalities. Architecture and design of most of the constructions had symmetry and ratio to it now. Buildings were built in regarding their luxury and accessibility to aid human use and show off human greatness. Sculptures were made in 3d scale so humans could see it from every direction* Donatello, for example, carved his statues that were meant to stand alone, and be viewed from every angle.* And David created his most well-known sculpture that has the form of the idealistic human body that draws the focus on the individual. In conclusion with Renaissance, Europe, in general, saw a revival of thought, reshaping and secularising every human activity with the wisdom of ancient civilizations and put everything in a realistic, rationalistic foundation. It established human as the center of the universe and found its wonders in this creature. It would change the course of the world for generations to come.

Judicial Reasoning And Decisions

Judicial Reasoning And Decisions Judges often couch their judgements in language which would suggest that their role is merely to declare the law (declaratory theory). It is obvious that judges in fact use a variety of reasoning techniques. Different judges may use different techniques at different times. Inconsistencies generated as a result of different judges adopting different reasoning provides source for critique and evaluation by identifying reasoning used by a particular tribunal and to contrast this with the reasoning adopted by other judges. From this we can mark out: Where there is a consistency in the approach taken by different judges and different courts. Similarly, where there are inconsistent approaches. How judges adopt a particular form of reasoning to avoid reaching a decision, or to reach a decision that appears more just or acceptable. An understanding of how judges arrive at decisions and the reasoning employed helps with an appreciation of how law develops over time: alternatively to recognise why it is that law fails to develop in response to changing social conditions. Aspects of Reasoning Deductive reasoning: moving from a general proposition to a particular conclusion. Moving from a general observation to a particular conclusion in a particular case: All men are mortal Brian is a man Brian is mortal General observation is about man and mortality. Knowing that Brian is a man, allows the conclusion about Brians mortality. The reasoning relies on a premise, in this case that all men are mortal. Need for certainty about this general premise. Assessment is entirely dependent on the truth or accuracy of what is said about mortality and Brians gender. The utility of deductive reasoning, or reasoning based on general statements, is that it has the capacity to allow us to make predictions, for example: If it rains you will get wet major premise/observation It is raining minor premise You will get wet conclusion Facts may be inaccurate, there is the possibility of conditionality (use an umbrella), but the logic of the reasoning process which remains valid. Where a conclusion is based on a process of deductive reasoning it is important to: Assess the strength or weakness (reliability) of the premise (or premises) relied upon). Consider whether the major premise is itself true. Consider whether the major premise may be undermined by exceptions. In law a particular conclusion may be based upon an assumption that some premise is true, that it is a fact. This assumption may be derived from an assessment of the law (statute/case authority). This assumption of the law is used to make predictions based on known similar facts. There may be doubt about the law. The premises upon which judges rely may be challenged. Inductive reasoning: a particular observation induces a particular conclusion. Example: It has rained every year in October for the last five years therefore it will rain in October. Accuracy of the statement may be confirmed. But there remains some doubt about the prediction. With inductive reasoning there is never absolute certainty. Reasoning by Analogy From a given set of factual circumstances, using analogy with other circumtsnces, to a prediction about what might be the significance of those circumstances. E.g. from a set of facts in a legal case to a prediction of what might be the outcome of the case by reference to other similar cases. , At its simplest reasoning by analogy may be described by example: A has characteristic X B shares that characteristic A also has characteristic Y B must have characteristic Y The example is simplistic but illustrative. Case A is similar to Case B so similar things must be true of Case B as they are of Case A. Subjective element involved in deciding about similarities and differences, example: Wood floats on water. Stone is like wood in that it an inanimate object, it does not move. Stone will float on water. Stone possess a characteristic that is identified for wood, i.e. that it is inanimate. On the basis of the analogical method this might result in an inaccurate prediction. The selected similarity, i.e. that the fact that both are inanimate objects, is not a relevant characteristic. The selection of relevant characteristics for comparison is vital to the efficiency of the analogical method. Cases will often have similar facts but there will always be differences. Even in the most straightforward of cases, e.g., a common assault by punching, or a minor road traffic accident, precise facts actors, conditions will differ. But these differences may not always be relevant. E.g. in most cases the fact that the actors are different (age, sex etc.) when it comes to application of the criminal law is irrelevant, but even here there are exceptions. There may not be any liability in the case of a child or a person under a disability. In applying the analogical method to cases be aware of: Relevant similarities. Relevant differences. In legal context some precedent or legal authority may prevent or rules out particular similarities or differences being relied upon. A description of analogical reasoning in the law is given by Emily Sherwin: Emily Sherwin, A Defence of Analogical Reasoning in Law, (1999) 66 Uni. Chicago LR 1179. Sherwin describes the analogical method in relation to its application in law. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ confronted with an unsettled question, the judge surveys past decisions, identifies the ways in which these decisions are similar to or different from each other and the question before her, and develops a principle that captures the similarities and differences she considers important. This principle in turn provides the basis for the judges own decision. Whatever one may think about the merits of analogical decision-making, there is little question that judges à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ and lawyers addressing judges often cast their analysis in this form. p.1179 Sherwins refers to: An unsettled question a question of dispute which the judge has to decide. A survey of past decisions a review of authority, Similarity and difference relevant factors for analogy or distinction. Need to capture some principle which provides the basis of his or her decision. Returning to similarity and difference. Similarity allows cases with similar facts to be decided based on the authority of previous decisions on basis of established legal rules. Similarity and the analogical method provide a foundation on which to build a critique of judicial reasoning (comparing outcomes in similar cases, focussing on similarities selected or overlooked). The importance of difference is that it allows cases to be distinguished one from the other. This is significant as: It allows legal rules to develop for different factual situations. It allows a judge to reach a different decision from that decided in a previous case even where this appears similar to the case which he or she is required to decide. This means it allows the law to develop. Like similarity, the identification of difference facilitates criticism of judicial decision making (cases should be distinguished so that different legal rules should apply, facts were not sufficiently different for a case to be distinguished). Critique of the analogical method may include whether or not higher principle ought to be applied. Sunstein uses the example of free speech in American states. Cass R. Sunstein, On Analogical Reasoning, 106 Harvard Law Review (1993) 741. Sunstein discusses the prohibition on banning free speech (Brandenburg v Ohio 395 US (1969)), and the possibility that some states might try to ban particular forms of free speech. Argues this is without principle unless differences in types of free speech can be identified as principled. Sunstein compares a march by the Nazi party and a speech by member of the Klu Klux Klan. She points out that: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ one difference between the Nazi March and the [Klu Klux] Klan speech is that the Nazi Party is associated with the holocaust. This is indeed a difference, but American law currently deems it irrelevant. It appears unprincipled or excessively ad hoc for the states to ban prohibitions on political speech except where the speaker is associated with the Holocaust. p.745 Sunstein argues that to distinguish between the KKK and the Nazi party on the basis of an association with the Holocaust is unprincipled in the context of regulating of free speech. The principle of free speech is what informs the law in the United States. The identification of difference, even though this may be valid, cannot justify departure from the higher principle of free speech. Analogical Reasoning: Advantages and Disadvantages For many analogical reasoning is relatively unsophisticated and lacks depth or detail. But there are advantages: It does not require actors to develop their own theories to account for convictions as decisions are based on previous decisions. Actors are free to simply refer to developed principles arising from past cases. It promotes gradual evolution of the law over time giving stability. This is because where there are similarities with past cases the outcome is likely to be similar, but where there are some relevant differences this will account for change. It fits with stare decisis. You will be aware of this principle, that judges should follow the decisions of previous cases where these represent an authoritative precedent. It allows convergence on outcomes. Put more simply the law becomes predictable. It requires strong justification to depart from authority. This means that where there is departure form a particular line of authority convincing and principled reasons will support such a departure. It requires constant vigilance to ensure consistency. Judges and lawyers are always looking and checking to ensure that a particular cases falls within a line of precedent, or for other more suitable precedent. Disadvantages. The law remains static as judges are reluctant to depart from past decisions. The pace of change is slow as the law changes only incrementally as judges are able to identify differences between cases. The law fails to respond to social change which takes place at a more rapid pace than change in the common law. It maintains decisions which may be base don judicial preferences or prejudices. Is it true that the analogical method and precedent acts as a restraint on judges? Decisions and reasoning by analogy depend very much on the validity of the analogy selected, which is a matter for the judge to determine. A judge seeking to avoid a particular conclusion may determine the ratio of a particular case, the principle which it espouses, by a process of inductive reasoning from the facts of earlier cases this introduces uncertainty. A judge may formulate the ratio influenced by his or her opinion on what the law should be, it then follows that a judge may select a case which best fits his or her interpretation of the law. As lawyers we may often feel that judges in the common law system make the law. As Postema comments: We expect judges to follow rules, but it appears in common law practice rules follow judges à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ it was Bentham who first used the term judge made law hurling against English law as a term of contempt and abuse Gerald J. Postema, Philosophy of the Common Law, The Oxford Handbook of Jurisprudence and Philosophy of Law (Oxford, OUP, 2002), 588-621, p.589 The possibility that judges will influence the content of law even in a system of analogical reasoning, or perhaps because of the system, is a valid criticism of judicial decision making. Judges may be criticised for failing to reflect normative or social values. Where the judge decides in accordance with established principle the process of reasoning by analogy begins with prior decisions rather than a judges own observations and intuitions. It is arguable that this: Fails to reflect changing attitudes because past decision are, by definition, taken under a different set of social conditions. And that it maintains bad decisions where these do not fit with present day values. As Sunstein points out: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ analogical reasoning usually does have a backward-looking, conservative, incremental character à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ it should be acknowledged that insofar as analogical reasoning takes current legal materials as the basis for reasoning, it can indeed be an obstacle to justified change through law. Cass R. Sunstein, On Analogical Reasoning, 106 Harvard Law Review (1993) 741. p.768 Would it be better to allow a judge to act on his or her intuition and employ ordinary moral reasoning? Lack of Theory A key criticism of analogical reasoning is that decisions are arrived at without reference to an overarching theory which provides moral content or principles. Judges are unlikely to justify particular outcomes based on a theory of law. Instead abstraction is from particular cases. Path Dependency Path dependence theory tells us that an outcome or decision, whether it be a decision taken by policy-makers such as politicians, or by judges, is shaped in a very particular way by decisions and outcomes which led up to it by the path leading to it (history matters). Legal context: decisions taken by judges in the course of interpreting and applying statute or in the course of developing the common law will be influenced by decisions taken and the outcomes of cases which have taken place in the past. Statement of the obvious: But important question is why are past decisions so influential? Why is precedent and past decisions so compelling? Can path dependency explain the non-prescriptive nature of precedent within the common law? System of precedent allows the law to remain relatively stable but processes of change do take place. Law develops. Path dependency theory can explain change as well as continuity. Path Dependency Literature One of most influential writers on path dependency theory has been Paul David (economics). Work on dominance of the QWERTY keyboard system in word processing and computer technologies. David argues dominance of the QWERTY system due to processes of path dependency taking place in the manufacture of keyboards. Paul A. David, Clio and the Economics of QWERTY, American Economic Review, 1985, 75(2), Papers and Proceedings of the Ninety-seventh Annual meeting of the American Economic Association, pp.332-337. A path dependent sequence of economic change is one of which important influences upon the eventual outcome can be exerted by temporally remote events (332). Events taking place earlier in time have an important influence on the outcome of sequences of events. Statement on its own is empty and unhelpful. Path dependency theory does not stop here. Paul Pierson, Increasing Returns, Path Dependence, and the Study of Politics, American Political Science Review, 2000, 94(2), pp.251-267. Broad conception: history matters. Pierson is critical claiming this is unhelpful. Narrower definition (as suggested by Margaret Levi). Levi argues (in the context of political decision-making) that once a once a state has adopted a particular path (policies), costs of reversal are high. Different choices can be made but entrenchments of institutional arrangements will obstruct easy reversal of initial choice. Pierson, notes that once particular courses of action are adopted they can be virtually impossible to reverse. Political development punctuated by critical moments or junctures that shape basic contours of policy and therefore social life. Increasing returns: Pierson uses to explain path dependency. Steps taken in one direction induce movement in the same direction. Benefits of continuing down a particular path increase more likely that that path will be selected in the future (even in case of inefficient outcomes). Features of increasing returns: Large set-up or fixed costs. Learning effects. Coordination effects. Adaptive expectations. Pierson applies path dependency to politics. Useful in analysis of law as Pierson refers to social institution, politics, political activity and social policy. Refers to: institutional constraints; policies and constraint on behaviour, and coercive powers signal to actors what has to be done. How are these concepts relevant to the law? Paul Pierson, Not Just What, but When: Timing and Sequence in Political Process, Studies in American Political Development, 2000, 14, pp.72-92. Process of increasing returns induces self-reinforcement or positive feedback. Initial moves in a particular direction encourage further movement along the same path. The road not chosen becomes increasingly unreachable as an alternative. Pierson notes that a critical feature of path dependent processes is the relative openness or permissiveness of early stages in a sequence compared with the relatively closed or coercive nature of later stages. James Mahoney, Path dependence in sociological history, Theory and Society, 2000, 29, pp.507-548 Mahoney argues that path dependence characterizes specifically those historical sequences in which contingent events set into motion institutional patterns or event chains that have deterministic properties (507). Also refers to self-re-enforcing mechanisms (increasing returns), and power and legitimation mechanisms (509). Discusses reactive sequences temporally ordered and causally connected events. For a series of events to be path dependent they must be contingent rather than simply causally linked, and must possess a quality of inherent sequentiality (509). Mahoney seeks to conceptualize path dependence: broad conceptualization that essentially entails the argument that past events influence future events. Refers Sewells influential definition, path dependence means that what has happened at an earlier point in time will affect the possible outcomes of a sequence of events occurring at a later point in time. Most historical sociologists employ a more specific under-standing of path dependence past choices affect future processes. Path-dependent analyses minimally have three features: [1] path-dependent analysis involves the study of causal processes where early decisions are highly influential; [2] early historical events are contingent occurrences that cannot be explained on the basis of prior events; [3] path-dependent sequences are marked by relatively deterministic causal patterns. Self-reinforcing sequences: initial steps in a particular direction induce further movement in the same direction such that over time it becomes difficult or impossible to reverse direction. With self-reinforcing sequences, periods of institutional genesis correspond to critical junctures. Critical junctures are characterized by the adoption of a particular institutional arrangement from among two or more alternatives. Critical because once a particular option is selected it becomes progressively more difficult to return to the initial point when multiple alternatives were still available. Power explanation: actors make decisions by weighing costs and benefits. (refers to power of elites and is not directly relevant to analysis within the law). Legitimation explanation: grounded in actors subjective orientations and beliefs about what is appropriate or morally correct (moral approval to acquiescence with status quo). Reactive sequences: follow a different logic from that of self-reinforcing sequences. Reactive sequences are marked by backlash perhaps to reverse early events. Early events trigger subsequent development not by reproduction but through reaction and counter-reaction. Adrian Kay, A Critique of the Use of Path Dependency in Policy Studies, Public Administration, 2005, 83(3), pp.553-571. Process is path dependent if initial moves in one direction elicit further moves in that same direction. Path dependency is a process that constrains future choice sets. It is not a story of inevitability in which the past neatly predicts the future.'(554) Path dependency is about stability: observations of change challenge this notion. Critique of path dependency is that it is rather better at explaining stability than change. Picking up on argument by Thelen (1999) who argues that path dependency is too deterministic. Taylor C. Boas, Conceptualizing Continuity and Change: The Composite-standard Model of Path Dependency, Journal of Theoretical Politics, 2007, 19(1), pp.33-54. Analysis of institutional development needs to account for both continuity and change over time. Problem with path dependence which emphasizes lock-in is that political institutions change over time, exhibiting flexibility rather than rigidity (35). Suggests a composite-standard model of path dependency to account for change to illustrates how incremental changes in political institutions can translate into fundamental transformation over time (35). Distinguishes inflexibility (limiting deviation within a path) from lock-in (difficulty in switching paths). Law and Path Dependency Mark J. Roe, Chaos and Evolution in Law and Economics, Harvard Law Review, 1996, 109(3), pp.641-668 Roe notes that the evolutionary paradigm (evolution to efficiency) has a strong grip on law scholarship. Uses road metaphor. Occasionally path dependent road becomes so costly that society rips it up and builds a new road. Where inefficiencies are built into a system path dependency helps us understand why they remain (646). Weak form path dependence two options (or more), both equally efficient. Path dependence explains why society perseveres with one but says nothing about relative efficiencies. Semi-strong form path dependence saved costs are outweighed by costs of change. Once society has established its path the costs of change might outweigh advantages that accrue. Strong form path dependence costs of change would be worthwhile but there is still resistance to change. Notes that path dependence supposes slow change through time (punctuated equilibrium). Where path dependence is strong-form change is desirable but society is stuck due to lock-in effects. Oona A. Hathaway, Path Dependence in the Law: The Course and Pattern of Legal Change in a Common Law System, Iowa Law Review, 2001, 86(2), 601-665. Despite recognition of role of history in legal development little is known about the specific ways in which it matter path dependency provides analytical tool. Outcome or decision is shaped in a very particular way by decisions and outcomes which led up to it (path leading to it). In the common law each legal decision increases the probability that the next will take a particular form. Early decisions can lead to lock-in (resistance to change). Inflexibility can lead to inefficiency. Opportunities for change arise at critical junctures (guides practitioners to concentrate their resources on altering the path of the law at given instances). The past forms the point of departure for the present. The present, in turn, forms the point of departure for the future. Therefore, the historical path leading to each new outcome or decision directly shapes that outcome in specific and systematic ways (663). Several variants to path dependency. Increasing returns path dependence growing out of the economics literature. In law it is less costly to continue down a particular path than it is to change to a different path. Identifies four characteristics of increasing returns: large set-up costs; learning effects; coordination effects; and self-reinforcing or adaptive expectations. Features of increasing returns are the indeterminacy of outcome at the outset, the increasing prospect of lock-in or inflexibility. The initially selected technology will become locked-in even if there is an equally developed alternative which could have been superior. Evolutionary path dependence based on a Dawrwinian notion of gradual and progressive evolution, or an alternative conception based on new evolutionary theory where periods of stasis are followed by sudden change or punctuated equilibria. As in increasing returns path dependence it is difficult to predict outcomes of change in advance. This is because punctuated equilibria are marked by contingency. This is because the variables are not necessarily known in advance. Because of this it is not possible to predict the arrival of rapid change in advance. But once change has occurred the theory does predict a period of stability. Both forms of evolutionary theory agree that changes in the past directly determine the possibilities for the future. Describes the system of precedent within the common law. Most striking feature of path dependence affecting the common law is increasing returns due to the reliance on precedent. Process of judging generates learning effects. Common law generates significant reinforcing effects and adaptive expectations. This includes amongst litigants who will select their cases to fit with particular precedents to avoid becoming losers. This pushes the law further in the same direction and discourages litigants form bringing cases in case they lose. Judges act on incomplete information about future outcomes of their decisions, this is bounded rationality. Small early changes in the law can have significant future ramifications. Early cases on a legal issue become important because the path of the common law is locked in at an early stage. A consequence of path dependency in the law is that of lock-in or inflexibility. A further feature of path dependence is indeterminacy of outcome. Early cases are unpredictable but not inexplicable. This does not mean that there is not one correct rule, but rather that at the outset it cannot be predicted in which direction the law will move. Evolutionary theory of path dependence invoked most frequently in legal literature. In a common law system the decision in each case draws on the stock of existing precedent. Economics scholars draw on the evolutionary theory to claim that competition leads to the best results (the evolution to efficiency rule). But evolution to efficiency paradigm ignores the path-dependent nature of legal change in the common law system. Each choice is made within a constrained set of circumstances. Evolution to efficiency theory of law fails to recognize reality but is also a misunderstanding of evolutionary theory. Argues that there is an inbuilt tendency toward resistance in the common law. Also discusses new evolutionary theory and punctuated equilibrium or periods of rapid change. This can correspond with change in the law when, for example, a line of authority is developed by the lower courts and is then appealed to the higher courts. This moment may be seen as a punctuation of the biological model. In this sense new evolutionary theory bears some resemblance to critical junctures or critical moments in path dependence. Critical junctures arise as moments of rapid change followed by a period of stability, the legacy of each critical juncture remains intact until some later critical juncture arrives to change and shape the political and institutional arrangements. History constrains critical junctures but each provides an opportunity for sweeping change . Sequencing path dependency. Litigants seeking a significant impact on the law should seek out (or attempt to create) punctuations, for it is only during punctuations that major change is possible (650). Marital Rape At one time the common law provided that a man could not commit the crime of rape on his wife. Rape was not possible within the confines of a lawful marriage. The rule stems from a statement attributed to the Lord Chief Justice, Lord Justice Hale, in the middle of the 18th century. Lord Hale described that law as being that: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ the husband cannot be guilty of a rape committed by himself upon his lawful wife, for by their mutual matrimonial consent and contract the wife hath given up herself in this kind unto her husband which she cannot retract. This extract is attributed to Lord Justice Hale in History of Common Pleas, (1736) or The History of the Pleas of the Crown. It was later repeated in other sources, for example: Archbolds Pleadings and Evidence in Criminal Cases (1822). This is not the law today. The process of change was slow. R v Clarence (1888) 22 QBD 23. In this case a wife made allegations of assault against her husband. This is not a case where rape was alleged. Instead the wife claimed that the husband had carried out an assault under s.20 and s.47 of the Offences Against the Person Act 1861). Justice Wills said: If intercourse under the circumstances now in question constitute an assault on the part of the man, it must constitute rape, unless, indeed, as between married persons rape is impossible, a proposition to which I certainly am not prepared to assent, and for which there seems to me to be no sufficient authority. The decision in Clarence was that the husband was not guilty of assault was based on the Courts assessment of the law which included an acceptance of the rule that a woman gives implied consent to the act of sexual intercourse. R v Clarke (1949) 2 All ER 448, [1949] 33 Crim App R 216. In this case a man was charged with the rape of his wife at a time when the couple were still married but there was separation order in place. The separation order had been based on the ground of the husbands persistent cruelty. The separation order contained a clause that the wife was no longer bound to cohabit with the husband. At the time of the alleged offence she in fact was not cohabiting with her husband. Defence counsel applied to the court to quash the charge of rape on the ground that it did not disclose any offence known to the law. Justice Byrne held that there was a general proposition of law that a husband cannot be guilty of the rape of his wife. No doubt, the reason is that on marriage the wife consents to the husbands exercise of the marital right of intercourse during such time as the ordinary relations created by the marriage contract subsist between them. The consent to marital intercourse which was implied and given by the wife at the time of the marriage was revoked by the separation order. R v Miller (1954) 2 QB 282. In this case a wife left her husband and filed a petition for divorce on the ground of adultery. The hearing of the petition for divorce was adjourned for the husband to attend. After this adjournment of the divorce case the husband met with the wife and had intercourse with her against her will.

A Poverty Stricken Paradise - Original Writing :: Papers

A Poverty Stricken Paradise - Original Writing On arrival in a small village called Wamba in Northern Kenya, the first thought that struck me as I stepped out of the Land Rover was the intensity of the midday sun blazing down upon me. As I took in the sights around me, a huge crowd of inquisitive children appeared from their huts and flocked towards the vehicle. So many happy faces in such a deprived village. This image will stay in my mind forever. To experience what life was really like in this small, but highly populated village, I stayed in a basic hotel among the villagers. The hotel was not a five star, luxury hotel, but was simply a bed and an integrated shower and squat toilet. For the villagers this would have been luxurious, as they lived in mud huts using whatever discarded plastic materials they could find to act as a roof. For me, this was like taking a trip back to the Stone Age. Everything was so basic. The most extraordinary view was one child's favourite toy. This was not some computer game, but an old car tyre. The poverty that these people were enduring was overwhelming, yet they were so happy with what little they had. The smiles on their faces were there constantly, even though they may not have eaten for many days due to the continuing drought that was affecting the area. When I asked one woman how she coped with not eating for so long, she replied, "When I feel hungry, I tighten my belt." This was horrific to hear, but for her it was a way of life. Because of the ongoing drought, water was becoming very scarce. To such an extent that their beloved cows and goats, which were their sign of wealth, were starting to die, leaving their owners with no food and no milk to drink. This leaves the people frail, but they are still both physically and mentally strong. The best example that showed this was one small boy, around twelve years old, carrying a

Crazy Old Holden Essay -- Essays Papers

Crazy Old Holden If you really want to hear about it, there is alot of symbolism in Catcher in the Rye. This novel, written by J.D. Salinger, utilizes symbols to portray different themes. Of these symbols there are three that are strongly related to Holden. The operation, being a madman, and stepping of a curb all play a vital role in the novel by J.D. Salinger. Holden is a very disturbed individual. Every since the death of his little brother, Allie, he has been going crazy. Holden even describes himself as a madman. Holden talked about being a madman while he was talking to the cab driver. Holden asked where the ducks went when the weather got cold. The cab driver thought this was a strange question and turned around to look at Holden like he was â€Å"a madman† (60). The cabby thought that it was an absurd question because everyone knew that the ducks went south for the winter. That is why the cab drive turned around to look at Holden like he was crazy. Another instance where Holden mentioned the madman was while talking to Sunny, the prostitute. Sunny came to Holden’s place because he wanted to have sex with her. Instead, Holden didn’t want to have sex, but he wanted to talk. Sunny thought that this was very odd of Holden to want to talk to a prostitute, rather than have sex, so she looked at him as if he were â€Å"a madman† (95). Going along with the madman theme is the operation that Holden talks about. The operation he is always talking about i...

When Laughter is the Solution, Not the Problem Essay -- Literature Hum

One of the many ways to cope is through the power of laughter. An old saying goes â€Å"Laughter is the best medicine,† useful in situations of grief and difficulties. Lately, however, laughter combines with politics and international news. While this is effective, is it right to do so? Not only do Jon Stewart and Stephen Colbert pick-and-choose the stories they wish to cover in their TV shows, they choose them based on the comedic potential, blinding their viewers to the real problems the stories present. Known for her comedic approaches in literature, Margaret Atwood also uses humor in her short story â€Å"Rape Fantasies† to effectively warn her female readers about the dangers of desensitizing and underestimating the possibility of rape. The admonition worked, although it was a risky maneuver and Atwood could have used another method just as effectively to caution her female audience. Published in 1975, right in the middle of the free love, hippie movement, Margaret Atwood’s â€Å"Rape Fantasies† evoked some extreme reactions from her readers. Some believed it to be too humorous to seriously study as a social critique, while others thought it just what society needed to wake up and consider this awful occurrence called â€Å"rape† (Tyler np). Focusing on gender studies, especially a woman’s role in the world, this story displays just how little women understand power. As a group, we consider ourselves powerful and strong; however, we do not understand exactly how powerless we are since we actually know so little about rape. For example, study the group of women in â€Å"Rape Fantasies† who eat and play bridge during their lunch break. One day Chrissy stops reading her magazine and asks if any of the group members have had a rape fantasy. ... ...r the value of each life, the danger of not reacting to a horrific news story, the possibility that anything can happen, and the fact that nobody can be overly protective. Works Cited Disaster Center. â€Å"United States Crime Rates 1960-2009.† Disaster Center. Disaster Center, 2010. Web. 9 Dec 2010. http://www.disastercenter.com/crime/uscrime.htm. Rape, Abuse, & Incest National Network. â€Å"Statistics.† Rape, Abuse, & Incest National Network. Rape, Abuse, & Incest National Network, 2009. Web. 9 Dec 2010. http://www.rainn.org/statistics. Tyler, Lisa. â€Å"Rape Fantasies: ‘I Just Don’t Understand It’: Teaching Margaret Atwood’s ‘Rape Fantasies’.† Short Stories for Students. Ed. Marie Rose Napierkowski. Vol. 3. Detroit: Gale, 1998. eNotes.com. January 2006. 9 Dec 2010. http://www.enotes.com/rape-fantasies/just-dont-understand-teaching-margaret-atwoods.

Study Guide for Final Exam – Criminal Law

Concepts of Criminal Law AJ-320 Study Guide – Final Exam Understand rules relating to self defense, when can force be used, how much? Understand a perfect or imperfect defense. Understand affirmative defenses and burden of proof. Understand imminent danger. Understand the Castle doctrine. Understand defense of the cartilage. Understand the Choice of Evils (general principle of necessity) defense and when it can be used. Understand the consent defense. Understand the irresistible impulse rule. Understand the diminished capacity defense. Understand the juvenile court waiver. Understand the entrapment defense. Understand the concept of complicity. Understand the elements of being an accomplice. Understand the differences between the common law and modern approaches. Understand the concept of accessory-after-the-fact. Understand what vicarious liability is based on. Understand what a strict liability crime involves. Understand what traditional parental responsibility is based on. What are inchoate crimes? How was common law attempt recognized? What are the elements of the Model Penal Code approach to an attempt? Understand the difference between legal and factual impossibility. What is the unilateral approach to modern conspiracy statutes? How does a party abandon an attempt? Understand the difference between a wheel and chain conspiracy. Which was the first state (1794) to split murder into two degrees? Which early common law, which felons were subjected to the death penalty? What is bifurcation as it relates to capital homicide cases? What is the objective reasonable person test in voluntary manslaughter? Understand the differences between voluntary and involuntary manslaughter. What are the elements of a criminal homicide? What is the most famous case relating to Corporate Homicide? Know the following cases: State v. Harold Fish (2009), People v. John Gray et al. (1991], People v. Goetz (1986), State v. Thomas (1997) Read the glossaries for Chapters Five through Nine.

Cost of the Good Life Essay

Overall wellbeing, an extravagant lifestyle, and wealth all come to mind when I ponder the good life but what does the good life actually cost? At first glance, this seems like a loaded question that requires multiple dissertations in order to answer. I even contemplated whether or not the good life had a cost at all. Breaking the good life into separate topics relieves much of the stress when it comes to giving an answer. In terms of consumerism, the good life is damaging to the environment, places too much emphasis on money, and it dwindles the importance of non-market values. According to Annie Leonard’s â€Å"The Story of Stuff†, our current materials economy is a commodity chain in which goods go from extraction, to production, to distribution, to consumption, and finally to disposal. The system sounds stable but it is actually in crisis. Anyone with a simple understanding of mathematics can tell you that you cannot run a linear system on a finite planet in the real world. In order for us, the consumers, to get all of our fancy products and up-to-date technologies, a process that we turn a blind eye to takes place. At the source of the process, there is natural resource exploitation. â€Å"We chop down the trees, blow up mountains to get the metals inside, use up all the water, and wipe out all the animals.† As consumers, we are running out of resources because we have too much stuff! In the past three decades alone, one third of the planet’s natural resource space has been consumed. We are undermining the planets very ability for people to live here. In the United States, less than four percent of our original forests are left and forty percent of the waterways have become unsanitary. When the resources start to deplete, we do the same thing to third world or lesser developed nations. The erosion of the local environments of these nations and economies ensures a constant flow of natives that rely on the little money they can earn while working in factories. We have become a nation of consumers largely due to planned and perceived obsolescence. Planned obsolescence is the art of designing products that don’t last a long time but last long enough for someone to buy the product again. Perceived obsolescence is changing the design of things to follow trends and keep up with the times. The number one example that people can relate to is the iPhone. If you don’t have the newest and  greatest iPhone, you are a social outcast. While this might be a tad over exaggerated, it’s not too far from the truth. In all actuality, polls show that our national happiness is declining even though we have more stuff than ever before. This is because we have less time for the things that truly make us happy like friends, family, and leisure time. At the cost of our planet and environment, are we really even living the good life? Fritjof Capra of â€Å"Qualitative Growth† said that â€Å"human needs are finite, but human greed is not. The major problems of our time cannot be understood in isolation; they are all interconnected and interdependent.† In our current economy, we have put currency on a pedestal that is far too high for us to reach anymore. Most of the goods that are produced and sold are often unneeded and therefore are essentially waste. Even still, demographic pressure and poverty form a vicious circle that lead to fewer jobs and wider poverty gaps. These are the costs of the good life. Our current global economy is a system striving for unlimited quantitative growth and is manifestly unsustainable as previously stated. Looking again from an ecological standpoint, the bad growth resulting from this system leads to externalizing social and environmental costs, is based on fossil fuels, involves toxic substances, depletes our natural resources, and degrades the Earth’s ecosystems. Harvard professor Michael Sandel adds what I believe to be the most interesting cost of the good life when it comes to affluenza. He argues that over the last three decades, we have drifted from having a market economy to becoming a market society. Although these two seem to be synonymous, they are actually quite different. A market economy is a valuable and effective tool for organizing productive activity while a market society is a place where almost everything is up for sale. By doing this, we have created a way of life in which market values â€Å"seep into almost every sphere of life and sometimes crowd out or corrode important, non-market values.† One of the examples that professor Sandel uses is congressional hearings in Washington D.C.. Lobbyists want to attend these hearings and because the seats are limited, line-standing companies have arisen. Line-standing companies hire homeless people and pay them an hourly rate in order to wait in line just  before the hearing. According to the professor, this is wrong for two reasons. â€Å"In a democratic society, everyone should have equal access to representative government. The other reason it’s wrong is that it demeans representative government.† When it comes to the point where almost everything in our public life is sold off to the highest bidder, something is lost. Money matters more and more in our society. And against the background of rising inequality, money takes a toll on the commonality of our civic life. In other words, we lose a part of ourselves. Do we go so far that we are cheapening important social goods and civic goods that are worth caring about? Society will eventually become a place of narcissistic opportunism where people will be buying their way into and out of positive and negative situations. What is the good life worth? I’ve been struggling with this question a great deal lately. You may or may not be familiar with the term first world problems. They are frustrations and complaints that are only experienced by privileged individuals, typically used as a comedic device to make light of trivial inconveniences. Not having the latest gadget and the newest clothes from a particular store are just a few examples. When I bought something, I failed to realize what I was actually paying. I now know that these consumer goods cost natural resources, valuable money, and so much more. The simplest way I can put it is that the cost of the good life: priceless.

Drugs and Society Essay

1b. List and describe briefly the major structures of the brain, as presented in your textbook, including the function of those elements that are most related to psychoactive drug reaction. The first layer of the brain is the cortex which covers the top and sides of the brain. This area controls reasoning and language, and this area will be less active when under sedative drugs. The basal ganglia are located underneath the cortex and it is made up of by the striatum. The striatum controls muscle tone and is part of the dopamine pathway which is a potential transport highway for psychoactive drugs. The hypothalamus is at the base of the brain and serves as liaison between the brain and pituitary gland. The pituitary hormonal output is involved in behaviors such as feeding and temperature regulation. The limbic system affects emotion, location memory, and physical activity. Along the brain stem are the medulla, midbrain, and pons from which contain the bulk of neurons that create dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin. The lower brain stem controls vomiting and respiratory functions. If affected, the respiratory function can be suppressed by drugs. 1c. Describe the life cycle of a typical neurotransmitter. A cell membrane with the uptake of a particular precursor absorbs amino acids to create a neurotransmitter. The amino acids undergo synthesis with a reaction with enzymes to become a neurotransmitter. Once created, the neurotransmitters are stored in vesicles until they are released into the synapse. Once released, the neurotransmitters will attempt to attach to the membrane of neurons. If the neurotransmitter does not make it to the neuron, then it will either absorb in the originating cell or be metabolized within the synapse. 2b. Differentiate between drug disposition tolerance, behavioral tolerance, and pharmacodynamics tolerance, and provide reasons why these concepts should be taken into account when determining the effects of a drug. Drug disposition tolerance is defined as the increase of the drug’s rate of metabolism or removal. The user may increase the amount of a drug taken due to the drug being metabolized too quickly or being removed from the body. A person may compensate their behavior when exposed to a drug overtime such as learning to drive while intoxicated. The impairment is reduced and this is known as behavioral tolerance. Pharmacodynamics tolerance is the main contributor to the need to increase the dosage of a drug in order to avoid withdrawal symptoms. The user does not feel the same effects of a dosage so the dosage must be increased in order to get the same feeling. 2d. Provide several specific personal and societal steps you would recommend in an effort to reduce the likelihood of adverse reactions to drugs taken in combination. The largest deficit that can be produced to avoid adverse reactions to drug taken in combination is to avoid doing it all such as alcohol and other depressants. Individuals that need to take multiple medications such as person with diabetes and high blood pressure need to be carefully monitored and educated on the effects of the medications individually and the effects of the medications when combined. 3b. Explain the basic rationale and theoretical foundations for the extensive use of amphetamine in the treatment of ADHD (attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder). ADHD individuals have deficits involved with the functions of executive control within the brain. This control center affects concentration, hyperactivity, and learning. Amphetamines have been shown to produce a calming effect upon the individual from the amphetamines ability to increase brain catecholamine activity whereas ADHD individuals suffer from catecholamine deficits in the prefrontal cortex. 3c. Provide your personal viewpoint on major concerns about ADHD diagnoses and the efficacy of drug treatments that have led to recent controversy. The basis of diagnoses of ADHD has not been fully researched due to any widely accepted knowledge as to why stimulants are effective in treating hyperactivity. The causes of ADHD are still not thoroughly understood. There have also been non-stimulant drugs that have been shown to be just as effective as stimulants such as Strattera and Atomoxetine. I believe that ADHD itself is a complicated issue that requires multiple points of attack such as the use of stimulant and non-stimulant drugs. What may work on one individual may not work on another. 4a. Provide evidence of your understanding of the ways in which time course events of barbiturate and benzodiazepine actions contribute to the onset of psychological and/or physical dependence. Barbiturate are fast acting drugs that may work within fifteen minutes and stay in the system for up to three hours. Due to the rapid activity of the barbiturates, they serve as a strong reinforcement to users due to the drug produced a desired effect quickly and leaving the body just as quickly. Benzodiazepine takes longer to initialize, but also stay in the body for up to ten hours. Barbiturates are taken in higher doses more rapidly, while Benzodiazepine is taken at lower does. Withdrawal symptoms of barbiturates from chronic symptoms are severe due to the rapidness the drug leaves the user’s body without the user’s body being able to adapt to the drug adequately. 4b. Describe the key functions of GABA (g-aminobutryic acid) in producing the effects of various sedative-hypnotic agents, with specific reference to benzodiazepines. GABA is a neurotransmitter that is found in CNS areas and deals with inhibitory functions. Benzodiazepine molecules are strongly attracted to the GABA receptor sites and when bound to the GABA receptor, the Benzodiazepine molecules will increase the inhibitory effects of GABA on the receptors.